11 Aug English in India: From Colonial Language to an Indian Language of Modernity

UPSC 2027 | GS Paper I – Indian Society & Culture | GS Paper II – Indian Polity & Governance | GS Paper I – Art & Culture

Why in the News?

The The Hindu editorial “English in India, a language that has earned its place” examines an important question: Can English be considered an Indian language?

The debate is often presented as a conflict between English and Indian languages, particularly Hindi. However, this approach overlooks India’s multilingual character. English entered India during the colonial period, but Indians gradually appropriated, transformed and Indianised it.

Today, English is deeply embedded in India’s higher education, administration, judiciary, business, science, technology, literature and global communication. Moreover, Indian writers have developed a distinctive form of Indian English literature.

Therefore, the issue is not whether English should replace Indian languages. Rather, it is about understanding how a colonial language has been adapted into India’s multilingual social and cultural landscape.

Which Subject is Related to This Topic?

Is English an Indian Language?

The answer requires a distinction between origin and identity.

English did not originate in India. It was introduced and expanded substantially during British colonial rule. Initially, it served the needs of colonial administration, commerce and education.

However, languages are not permanently defined by their place of origin. Once a language is adopted by a community, that community can reshape it.

Indian English has developed its own:

• vocabulary,
• pronunciation,
• idioms,
• literary traditions,
• rhetorical styles and
• cultural references.

Consequently, while English is not an indigenous Indian language in historical origin, it has acquired a legitimate place within India’s modern linguistic and cultural life.

English Under Colonial Rule

Macaulay and English Education

The expansion of English education is closely associated with Thomas Babington Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education (1835) and the subsequent educational policies of the British government.

English became important for:

• colonial administration,
• higher education,
• legal institutions,
• modern science,
• commerce and
• communication with the colonial state.

However, Indians did not simply remain passive consumers of English education.

Educated Indians began using English to criticise colonial rule itself.

English and the Indian National Movement

This is an important aspect for UPSC.

Several Indian intellectuals used English to communicate Indian political and social concerns to both Indian and international audiences.

Examples

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy used English to argue for social and intellectual reform.
• Dadabhai Naoroji presented his economic critique of colonial rule through English.
• Swami Vivekananda used English to communicate Indian philosophical ideas globally.
• Mahatma Gandhi translated and communicated Indian political thought through English, including Hind Swaraj.

Therefore, the language introduced by colonialism was gradually appropriated as a tool of anti-colonial politics.

Constitutional Position of English

This is one of the most important Prelims areas from this editorial.

Article 343

Under Article 343, Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.

However, this does not mean that Hindi is India’s “national language”.

UPSC Fact

India has no national language declared by the Constitution.

English continues to be used for official purposes under the Official Languages Act, 1963. The Act allows English to continue alongside Hindi for official purposes of the Union and for parliamentary business.

English and the Eighth Schedule

The Eighth Schedule currently contains 22 languages.

English is not included in the Eighth Schedule.

This distinction is extremely important:

English is widely used in India, but it is not one of the 22 Scheduled Languages.

At the same time, the Sahitya Akademi recognises English as one of the languages in which it conducts literary programmes, along with the 22 constitutional languages and Rajasthani.

Therefore, constitutional recognition and institutional/literary recognition are not the same thing.

Why Has English Survived in Post-Independence India?

1. A Link Language

India’s enormous linguistic diversity makes communication across linguistic regions challenging.

English can function as a link language, particularly among educated populations from different States.

For example, a person from Tamil Nadu and another from Assam may use English to communicate when neither knows the other’s regional language.

Therefore, English can sometimes reduce rather than increase linguistic barriers.

2. Higher Education

English remains highly important in:

• engineering,
• medicine,
• law,
• management,
• scientific research,
• technology and
• professional education.

Moreover, many major academic resources, research journals and global databases are available primarily in English.

Consequently, knowledge of English can provide access to a much wider knowledge ecosystem.

3. Employment and Global Economy

India’s integration with the global economy has strengthened the importance of English.

It is widely used in:

• IT and IT-enabled services,
• international business,
• aviation,
• tourism,
• diplomacy,
• finance,
• multinational corporations.

Hence, English has become associated with economic mobility and global opportunities.

English and Indian Literature

One of the strongest arguments in the editorial is that English has become a medium of Indian creativity.

Indian writers have used English to express:

• Indian social realities,
• caste and class,
• colonial experience,
• mythology,
• family relationships,
• migration,
• urbanisation,
• political change.

Important Indian English Writers

• R.K. Narayan
• Mulk Raj Anand
• Raja Rao
• Anita Desai
• Amitav Ghosh
• Vikram Seth
• Arundhati Roy
• Salman Rushdie
• Jhumpa Lahiri

These writers demonstrate that English can carry distinctly Indian experiences.

The Sahitya Akademi’s literary ecosystem also explicitly includes English, and its journal Indian Literature publishes original English writing along with translations from Indian languages.

What is “Indian English”?

Indian English refers to the variety of English that has developed within the Indian social and cultural environment.

It has absorbed influences from:

• Hindi,
• Tamil,
• Bengali,
• Telugu,
• Malayalam,
• Marathi,
• Urdu and many other languages.

Examples of Indian usage

Expressions such as:

• “prepone”
• “do the needful”
• “pass out”
• “revert back”
• “out of station”

illustrate distinctive Indian usage, although some expressions may be considered non-standard in international formal English.

The larger point is that language changes when communities use it.

Language and Cultural Adaptation

The editorial uses V.K. Gokak’s poem “English Words” to illustrate how English can take root in Indian soil.

This gives us an important sociolinguistic idea:

Language is shaped by its users.

A language may enter a society from outside, but over time it can acquire:

Local vocabulary → Local idioms → Local pronunciation → Local literature → Local cultural meaning

Consequently, Indian English cannot be understood merely as “British English spoken by Indians”.

It has developed its own cultural identity.

English and India’s Multilingualism

India’s linguistic identity is not based on having only one language.

Instead, Indian society is characterised by multilingualism.

A person may simultaneously use:

Mother tongue → Regional language → Hindi/another Indian link language → English

These languages can perform different functions.

For example:

• Mother tongue → family and cultural identity
• Regional language → local administration and social interaction
• Hindi → communication across several Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-speaking contexts
• English → higher education, professional communication and global interaction

Therefore, the presence of English does not automatically mean the disappearance of Indian languages.

English vs Indian Languages: A False Binary

The most important argument for UPSC is that India should not treat language policy as a zero-sum competition.

The question should not be:

English or Indian languages?

Instead, it should be:

How can India strengthen Indian languages while using English as an additional bridge to knowledge and global communication?

This approach supports multilingualism rather than linguistic replacement.

Significance of English for India

1. Global Connectivity

English gives India access to international:

• science,
• technology,
• diplomacy,
• education,
• trade and
• knowledge networks.

2. Social Mobility

For many Indians, English proficiency can improve access to:

• higher education,
• professional employment,
• multinational companies,
• competitive examinations,
• international opportunities.

However, unequal access to quality English education can also create a social and economic divide.

3. National Integration

India’s linguistic diversity makes communication across States an important challenge.

English can function as a relatively neutral bridge because it does not belong exclusively to one major Indian linguistic region.

Therefore, it can sometimes facilitate inter-State communication.

4. Soft Power

Indian English literature has helped communicate Indian experiences to global audiences.

The success of Indian writers, journalists, academics and professionals in English has consequently contributed to India’s cultural soft power.

The Major Concern: English and Inequality

The discussion should not become an uncritical celebration of English.

English proficiency is distributed unevenly across India.

Children from affluent families may have access to:

• English-medium schools,
• trained teachers,
• digital resources,
• private tutoring,
• international exposure.

Meanwhile, students from disadvantaged backgrounds may face poor-quality English instruction.

Consequently, English can become a form of cultural and economic capital.

Therefore, the policy challenge is:

Expand access to quality English education without weakening Indian languages.

English and the New Education Policy

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 promotes multilingual education and recommends that, wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, and preferably beyond, should be the home language/mother tongue/local language/regional language.

At the same time, NEP does not reject English.

Instead, it promotes multilingual proficiency.

This reflects a broader principle:

Mother tongue for strong foundational learning + multiple languages for wider communication and opportunity.

English in Judiciary and Administration

English continues to have an important role in India’s legal system.

The language of proceedings in the Supreme Court is English under Article 348.

Similarly, English remains important in:

• constitutional interpretation,
• legislation,
• legal education,
• higher courts,
• central administration.

Therefore, language policy has direct implications for governance and access to justice.

English and Indian Federalism

Language is closely linked with India’s federal structure.

The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 reorganised many States substantially on linguistic lines.

Since then, language has remained an important component of regional identity.

However, India has largely maintained a flexible multilingual model rather than imposing one language across the entire country.

English has sometimes played the role of an additional link language in this federal arrangement.

Important Constitutional Provisions for UPSC

English and Sahitya Akademi

This is an excellent Art & Culture + Prelims connection.

The Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy of Letters, works across India’s linguistic traditions.

Importantly, it recognises 24 languages for its literary programmes — the 22 languages in the Constitution plus English and Rajasthani.

Therefore:

Constitutional Scheduled Languages = 22

while

Sahitya Akademi’s recognised literary languages = 24

This is a useful factual distinction for UPSC.

Way Forward

1. Promote Multilingualism

India should avoid the false choice between English and Indian languages.

Instead, citizens should be encouraged to acquire multiple languages.

2. Strengthen Indian Languages

Indian languages need greater investment in:

• higher education,
• scientific terminology,
• digital content,
• translation,
• publishing,
• AI and language technology.

3. Democratise English

English should not remain a privilege of urban and affluent groups.

Quality English education should reach students in:

• rural areas,
• government schools,
• tribal regions,
• economically weaker communities.

4. Expand Translation Ecosystems

Translation can reduce the knowledge gap between India’s languages.

Sahitya Akademi itself emphasises translation and cross-linguistic literary dialogue as a way of connecting India’s diverse literary traditions.

Therefore:

Indian language → Translation → English → Global audience

can strengthen India’s cultural presence without weakening regional languages.

UPSC Prelims Practice Questions

Question 1

Consider the following statements regarding the language provisions of the Indian Constitution:

1. The Constitution declares Hindi as the national language of India.
2. Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.
3. English continues to be used for official purposes of the Union under statutory provisions.
4. English is included among the 22 languages in the Eighth Schedule.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A. 2 and 3 only
B. 1 and 4 only
C. 1, 2 and 3 only
D. 2, 3 and 4 only

Answer: A. 2 and 3 only

Explanation

Statement 1 is incorrect. The Constitution does not declare any language as India’s national language.

Statement 2 is correct. Article 343 provides that the official language of the Union is Hindi in Devanagari script.

Statement 3 is correct. English continues to be used for official purposes of the Union under the Official Languages Act, 1963.

Statement 4 is incorrect. English is not one of the 22 languages in the Eighth Schedule.

Therefore, A is correct.

UPSC Prelims Practice Question 2

Consider the following statements about the Sahitya Akademi:

1. It is India’s National Academy of Letters.
2. It conducts literary programmes in English.
3. English is one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule.
4. Rajasthani is recognised by the Sahitya Akademi for its literary programmes.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: B. 1, 2 and 4 only

Explanation

Statement 1 is correct. Sahitya Akademi is India’s National Academy of Letters.

Statement 2 is correct. It conducts literary programmes in English.

Statement 3 is incorrect. English is not included in the Eighth Schedule.

Statement 4 is correct. Sahitya Akademi recognises English and Rajasthani in addition to the 22 constitutional languages, making 24 languages for its literary programmes.

Hence, B is correct.

UPSC Mains Question

Q. “English in India has moved from being a colonial instrument to becoming a part of India’s multilingual identity.” Discuss its role in education, governance, social mobility and cultural expression.